DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND AGE AS CORRELATES OF ANTEPARTUM DEPRESSION AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN IN ANAMBRA STATE

Okoye, C. F.¹ & *Onyemaechi C. I.²

 

^1&2Department of Psychology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Anambra State, Nigeria

*Correspondence email- ci.onyemaechi@coou.edu.ng; Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17482592

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Abstract

This study explored the connection between domestic violence, age, and antepartum depression in pregnant women in Awka, Anambra State. A targeted sample of 116 women aged 19 to 40 years (M = 29.7, SD = 6.35) took part. Using a correlational research design, the study utilized two standardized instruments: The Domestic Violence Scale and a Depression Scale specifically designed to evaluate symptoms of antepartum depression. Data analysis utilized Pearson Product Moment Correlation. Findings revealed a noteworthy positive association between psycho-physical violence—a facet of domestic violence—and antepartum depression (r = 0.394, p < 0.05), implying that encounters with physical and psychological mistreatment considerably raise the probability of depressive symptoms throughout pregnancy. In comparison, the control-related element of domestic violence exhibited a negative yet statistically insignificant connection with antepartum depression (r = -0.051, p > 0.05), indicating a weak or unreliable association. In general, domestic violence showed a notable positive correlation with antepartum depression (r = 0.239, p < 0.05), highlighting the emotional toll of abusive settings. Age was not a significant predictor of antepartum depression (r = -0.010, p > 0.05), suggesting that psychological factors could have a more substantial impact than age on depressive symptoms in pregnancy. These findings highlight the significance of including intimate partner influences in maternal mental health approaches. Therefore, it was advised that antenatal care initiatives include assessments for domestic violence and offer assistance for relational issues

 

Keywords: Domestic Violence, Age, Antepartum Depression, Pregnant Women

 

Introduction

The period of pregnancy is often romanticized as a time of complete bliss and excitement; however, for many women, it brings along all sorts of mental burdens especially asymmetric psychological stress known as Antepartum depression (APD). More commonly called prenatal depression, APD symptoms resemble persistent low mood, heightened anxiety, and loss of interest in daily activities during the term of pregnancy. Recently outlined APD proportions ranged between 11.3% to 19.6%, which brings severe concern towards wellbeing services. Other than sullying maternal mental health, it also impacts fetal cases concerning premature birth, reduced weight at birth, and possible developmental delays during early childhood (Hamed et al., 2022). In addition to this, APD strongly correlates with an increased risk of Postpartum depression indicating the need for prompt identification and action while highlighting gaps in care supporting the importance of proper prenatal planning (Beck, 2001; Guintivano et al., 2018, Ejidike, et.al, 2023, Umeaku, et.al, 2024, Okonkwo, 2023 ). Out of numerous causes contributing towards APD, Domestic Violence (DV) has a very high significance. The world health organization claimed that roughly one in three women experience intimate partner violence including emotional abuse or sexual forms during their pregnancy.

Another factor that shows a persistent correlation with the occurrence of APD is maternal age. Younger pregnant women, particularly those in late teen or early adult years, experience higher rates of prenatal depression comparatively because of factors like lack of adequate emotional and social support, poor economic situation, limited access to quality prenatal healthcare, and a restricted network (Sulyman et al., 2021; Ehiedu, et.al, 2025; Biachi, et.al, 2025; Altendahl et al., 2022, Onyemaechi, et.al, 2025, 2022, 2017). On the other hand, older maternal age can come with its own set of psychological burdens such as worrying about childbearing age, complications associated with the pregnancy and balancing work life along with family responsibilities—all contributing to heightened emotional distress and depressive symptoms during pregnancy.

Despite increased attention towards APD in recent years owing to its potentially harmful consequences, little is known regarding the interplay between domestic violence as risk factors alongside maternal age—especially in the context of low- and middle-income countries like Nigeria. This research intends to address this issue by examining the impact domestic violence and maternal age have on antepartum depression among expecting mothers. The goal for this study is to further resilience frameworks on APD within Nigeria to that will help design effective strategy focused on improving psychological support for expectant mothers.

 

Statement of the problem

Entering motherhood marks the onset of one’s journey into an emotionally, socially and physically transformative stage in life. This changes a woman’s mental health status for the worse, making her susceptible to disturbances in the mind. While many people think of pregnancy as a time laden with joy, fulfillment and hope, a very large population goes through psychological difficulties like antepartum depression (APD). This particular type of prenatal emotional distress can affect the maternal experience and ultimately hinder well-being throughout pregnancy.

Although APD has been recognized as an important public health concern recently, spending research focus and clinical attention on postpartum depression has been more common practice. Such disparities may be due to lingering societal myths that view pregnancy as emotionally blissful together with absence of routine mental healthcare during antenatal visits. Thus, Antepartum depression symptoms go unnoticed or misdiagnosed which leaves numerous mothers-to-be without critical psychological care services and treatment path.

To fill this void, the current study investigates the prevalence and psychosocial implications of antepartum depression while concentrating on domestic violence and maternal age which are two significant yet overlooked risk factors.

 

 

Purpose of the Study

The general aim of the study is to investigate the correlation between domestic violence, age, and ante partum depression among women in Anambra State. The specific objectives of the study include:

1. To ascertain the correlation between Psycho-physical violence dimension of domestic violence and ante partum depression among women in Anambra State
2. To determine the correlation between control violence dimension of domestic violence and ante partum depression among women in Anambra State
3. To ascertain the correlation between overall domestic violence and ante partum depression among women in Anambra State
4. To examine the correlation between age and ante partum depression among women in Anambra State

 

Research Questions

The present study sought to answer the following questions.

1. Will physical dimension of domestic violence significantly correlate with ante partum depression among women in Anambra State?
2. Will control dimension of domestic violence significantly correlate with ante partum depression among women in Anambra State?
3. Will overall domestic violence significantly correlate with ante partum depression among women in Anambra State?
4. Will age significantly correlate with ante partum depression among women in Anambra State?

 

 

Theoretical Framework

Hopelessness Theory of Depression (Seligman, 1972)

The theory of hopelessness in relation to depression, which Seligman first developed in 1972, suggests that ongoing exposure to adverse circumstances may cause an individual to develop a learned helplessness syndrome, culminating in a profound and pervasive sense of hopelessness. Depressive individuals tend to embrace cognitive schemas—unstable pessimistic deep-set beliefs about themselves and the world around them—that are maladaptive. These cognitive distortions certainly attribute greater risk for depressive symptoms, particularly when there is inertia feeling like one cannot do anything useful about their situation. For the purposes of this study, the hopelessness theory construct is appropriate for analyzing the impact of domestic violence and maternal age on the development of antepartum depression (APD) in expectant mothers.

Any type of domestic violence…physical or emotional… can systematically diminish a woman’s sense of self and reinforce an enduring narrative of powerlessness. Recurrent patterns of abuse lead victims to adopt overly defeatist opinions about themselves aligned with purportedly low self-worth while losing appreciation for their capabilities; this supports the central premise behind helplessness theory that chronic hardship bolsters one’s cultivation of helplessness. Once such patterns emerge, these participants

Antepartum depression typically manifests as ongoing sadness, heightened anxiety, and continual emotional distress during pregnancy, often stemming from a feeling of unavoidable stress or hopelessness. A pregnant woman who feels trapped in damaging situations—like an abusive relationship or an emotionally unavailable partner—might start to despair, as described in the hopelessness framework. This feeling of lacking any feasible route to enhancement can amplify depressive symptoms, especially when there is minimal hope for future alleviation or transformation.

By utilizing Seligman’s hopelessness theory, we can better investigate the interplay between domestic abuse and age-related coping abilities in influencing the mental health outcomes of pregnant women. These factors play a role in creating negative thought patterns and persistent feelings of helplessness, both of which greatly increase the likelihood of developing APD. In general, the theory offers a thorough psychological viewpoint for examining how environmental stressors and personal weaknesses combine to affect maternal mental health.

Based on the broad objective of the study and comprehensive review of the literature, the hypotheses generated and tested for the purpose of the study are stated thus;

1. Psycho-physical violence dimension of domestic violence will significantly correlate with ante partum depression among women in Anambra State.
2. Control violence dimension of domestic violence will significantly correlate with ante partum depression among women in Anambra State.
3. Overall domestic violence will significantly correlate with ante partum depression among women in Anambra State.
4. Age will significantly correlate with ante partum depression among women in Anambra State.

 

 

Method

Participants

The participants of this study included 116 women gathered from various health facilities (Apex multispecialty hospital and Teaching hospital, Awka) throughout Anambra State. Recruitment was carried out in partnership with healthcare providers from the hospital’s prenatal and mental health units. This partnership made certain that qualifying individuals have obtained or qualify for a clinical depression diagnosis in the last 12 months, as evaluated by certified medical experts such as clinical psychologists. A purposive sampling method was utilized, enabling the selection of participants according to the study’s particular criteria (i.e., women who have undergone clinical evaluation for depressive symptoms in the past year). This approach was suitable since it guaranteed that participants fulfilled the study criteria. The women sampled were aged between 19 and 40 years (M = 29.7, SD = 6.35). 92 (58.4%) possessed primary education, 42 (26.7%) had completed secondary education, and 22 (13.9%) obtained tertiary education. 142 (90.1%) identified as Christian, 2 (1%) identified as Muslim, and 12 (7.9%) identified as traditionalists

 

 

Instruments

Domestic Violence Questionnaire (Abolmaali et al., 2014)

This 43-item self-report scale, developed by Abolmaali et al., (2014), was utilized for the current research. The Domestic Violence Questionnaire is a multi-faceted tool, and the dimensions taken into account in this questionnaire include: 1) Psycho-physical violence, 2) control violence. In this survey, each answer is rated using a Likert scale: Not true at all of my spouse (0); somewhat true of my spouse (1); fairly true of my spouse (2); quite true of my spouse (3), and completely true of my spouse (4). The highest result on this questionnaire indicates the greatest degree of violence. Igbolekwu et al. (2021) confirmed the instrument in Nigeria, achieving a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.87 for the total scale, indicating strong internal consistency. The reliability scores obtained from the pilot study on this instrument which was carried out by the researcher using 45women who were purposively sampled from government general hospital in Onitsha, reported 0.90 for psychi-physical dimension, 0.83 for control violence dimension, and 0.92 for the overall scale, with a convergent validity of (r .79).

 

The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), initially created by Beck and associates in 1961, was used as an instrument to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in pregnant women. This self-assessment tool consists of 21 questions, each evaluated on a scale from 0 to 3, yielding a total score that can vary from 0 to 63. Even though the BDI was not originally designed as a diagnostic instrument, it is well-known for its efficacy in measuring the intensity of depression. In the Nigerian setting, the BDI has been widely utilized in empirical research to evaluate its relevance and psychometric reliability. For instance, Ossai et al. (2021) employed the BDI to study depression in medical students in Nigeria, illustrating its significance in regional mental health research. The tool has reliably demonstrated robust psychometric characteristics among various groups. In Nigeria, studies have indicated internal consistency estimates (Cronbach’s alpha) ranging from 0.82 to 0.91, demonstrating strong reliability. Further assessments of test-retest reliability and concurrent validity have shown satisfactory ranges, usually falling between 0.77 and 0.90 (Ossai et al., 2021). During the pilot stage of the present study, the BDI produced a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.80, demonstrating strong internal consistency. This result aligns with earlier research conducted in Nigeria, reinforcing the effectiveness of the BDI in evaluating depression symptoms in women from this area. Considering its proven reliability and past application in the Nigerian setting, employing the BDI in this research is suitable and methodologically sound

 

 

Procedure

All tools utilized in this research were delivered directly to participants via in-person interactions. Participants were chosen according to defined inclusion criteria: pregnant women in their second or third trimester, aged 19 to 45 years, visiting antenatal clinics at Apex Multi-Specialty Hospital and a Teaching Hospital in Awka, who could understand and fill out the study questionnaires, and who were able to give informed consent. A total of 156 qualified pregnant women undergoing antenatal care at the two hospitals took part in the study.

The recruitment process started with a pre-screening stage, where the lead researcher and five skilled research assistants worked alongside healthcare professionals at both hospitals to find potential participants showing signs of depression. After confirming eligibility, these individuals were contacted, briefed about the study, and asked to take part.

All participants were given the Domestic Violence Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory. Before filling out the questionnaires, participants were provided with an informed consent form that was attached to the front of the instrument. This document detailed the aim of the research, the methods used, and any possible risks or advantages. Participants showed their willingness to participate by proceeding with the survey. Filling out the questionnaire took around 20–30 minutes. After the survey, participants received verbal thanks and small tokens of appreciation. Healthcare providers who assisted in accessing participants were also given formal letters of gratitude and small gifts in acknowledgment of their help.

Before analyzing the data, the assumptions of normality and linearity were examined and confirmed. Ethical guidelines were rigorously followed during the data gathering process to reduce the impact of exteraneous variables like bias or labeling. These ethical actions comprised:

• Informed Consent: Participants received complete information regarding the research’s nature and purpose and were allowed to provide consent voluntarily without any pressure.
• Transparency: The research team effectively conveyed the study goals and methodologies to the participants, promoting clarity and encouraging truthful replies.
• Confidentiality: Participants were guaranteed that all data collected via the survey would be handled with the highest level of confidentiality. This guarantee contributed to establishing a secure atmosphere and alleviating worries about stigma or judgment.

 

Research Design and Statistics

This study adopted a correlation design and Pearson Product Moment Correlationfor analyses of the data collected using SPSS version 26.0.

 

 

Results

Table 1:Descriptive statistics of age, domestic violence and antepartum depression

Descriptive Statistics
	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation	Skewness		Kurtosis
	Statistic	Statistic	Statistic	Statistic	Statistic	Statistic	Std. Error	Statistic	Std. Error
Age	156	18	44	31.53	7.67	-.096	.194	-1.244	.386
Psycho-physical violence	156	67	108	87.57	7.77	-.180	.194	-.510	.386
Control violence	156	24	50	39.08	4.82	-.369	.194	.080	.386
Overall domestic violence	156	43	170	108.5	38.1	-.044	.194	-1.282	.386
Antepartum depression	156	29	86	58.34	15.5	.103	.194	-1.081	.386
Valid N (listwise)	156

Source: Researcher’s primary data

Table 1 indicated that Psycho-physical violence (-.180) had a negative skew, suggesting that increased levels of Psycho-physical violence were predominant among participants. The standard deviation (SD) of 7.770 indicated a moderate fluctuation in experiences of Psycho-physical violence. Likewise, control violence (-.369) exhibited a negative skew, indicating a greater prevalence of control-related violence, with an SD of 4.828 implying relatively low variability. Overall domestic violence (-.044) exhibited a negative skew, indicating extensive exposure to domestic violence, with an SD of 38.191 reflecting considerable diversity in participants’ experiences. Antepartum depression (.103) showed a positive skew, indicating elevated depressive symptom levels, with a standard deviation of 15.505 suggesting a moderate diversity in depression scores. The kurtosis for Psycho-physical violence (-.510) and control violence (.080) indicated distributions resembling normality, whereas overall domestic violence (-1.282) and antepartum depression (-1.081) showed a flatter distribution, signifying varying levels of these experiences within the sampled population

 

Table 2: Correlation table between domestic violence, age and antepartum depression among women.

		Psycho-physical violence	Control violence	Overall domestic violence	Age	Antepartum depression
Psycho-physical violence		1
Control violence		-.036	1
Overall domestic violence		.694**	.694**	1
Age		.028	-.080	-.038	1
Antepartum depression		.499**	-.093	.426**	-.032	1

 

The findings in Table 2 indicated various correlations among the study’s variables. Psycho-physical violence showed a positive correlation with antepartum depression (P < 0.05; r = 0.499; N = 156), suggesting that greater exposure to psycho-physical violence correlated with elevated antepartum depression levels in women. In general, domestic violence exhibited a notable positive correlation with antepartum depression (P < 0.05; r = 0.426; N = 156), indicating that women subjected to higher levels of domestic violence experienced more symptoms of antepartum depression. Conversely, control violence revealed no relationship with antepartum depression (P > 0.05; r = -0.093; N = 156), suggesting that control-related domestic violence did not significantly correlate with depressive symptoms in pregnancy. Age also showed no correlation with antepartum depression (P > 0.05; r = -0.032; N = 156), indicating that the women’s age was not significantly related to their experience of antepartum depression.

 

 

Discussion

The first hypothesis suggested that psycho-physical violence, a distinct aspect of domestic violence, would reveal a statistically significant correlation with antepartum depression in pregnant women residing in Anambra State. The analysis’s results validated this hypothesis. A significant positive relationship was found between experiences of psycho-physical abuse and depressive symptoms during pregnancy, indicating that as occurrences of physical and emotional harm rose, the chance of developing prenatal depression also increased. These results highlight the significant psychological impact that intimate partner violence (IPV) has on the mental health of pregnant women.

This result is consistent with a significant amount of research connecting physical and emotional abuse to negative mental health effects, particularly depression (Campbell et al., 2019; Taft et al., 2020; Bohn & Meador, 2021). Previous studies have consistently demonstrated that women experiencing physical violence during pregnancy have a markedly higher likelihood of developing mood disorders. For instance, Bohn and Meador (2021) found that women who underwent physical harm during pregnancy showed heightened depressive symptoms, whereas Campbell et al. (2019) noted elevated levels of both depression and anxiety in those affected by prenatal IPV. The present research supports these previous results, clearly identifying psycho-physical abuse as a significant predictor of antepartum depression.

A believable reason for this link resides in the extended emotional pain and physical disruption that frequently follow such violence. Ongoing exposure to physical and emotional trauma can lead to lasting fear, emotional turmoil, and internalized suffering, which are recognized as factors that trigger depressive disorders. These results could be intensified during pregnancy due to increased worry for the unborn child’s health and safety. According to Taft et al. (2020), women facing abuse while pregnant often undergo significant vulnerability and helplessness, which are essential characteristics of depression.

Regarding the second hypothesis—which investigated if coercive or controlling behaviours, as a type of non-physical abuse, relate to antepartum depression—the data did not show a significant correlation. This indicates that, for the women in this study, psychological control by itself did not seem to directly affect their levels of prenatal depression.

While earlier research has highlighted the negative effects of coercive control on mental well-being (Johnson & Leone, 2019; Stark, 2020), the current findings indicate that its impacts could be influenced by additional contextual factors like the presence of physical abuse, availability of emotional support, or personal resilience (Ali et al., 2021). Stark (2020) indicated that although coercive control can cause distress, it may not solely lead to clinical depression unless it is paired with more explicit types of abuse. The results of this study could indicate the existence of protective elements among participants, like social support, which may shield against the mental impacts of non-physical abuse.

Moreover, coercive actions might not provoke the same instant psychological disturbance or trauma as physical abuse. Johnson and Leone (2019) claimed that depressive symptoms are more prevalent when individuals experience multiple forms of abuse, as opposed to facing coercion alone. Moreover, it is likely that pregnant women in this group did not perceive controlling behaviours as severely threatening, resulting in them reporting lower levels of psychological distress compared to those who faced physical violence.

From a theoretical perspective, while the Hopelessness Theory highlights the depressive effects of a perceived absence of control, it might not entirely reflect the subtleties of non-violent coercion. In certain situations, women facing this control might still have hope or autonomy in different areas of their lives, potentially lowering the chances of becoming depressed.

The third hypothesis suggested that general exposure to domestic violence would have a significant correlation with antepartum depression. The study’s results corroborated this, showing that greater instances of abuse—irrespective of type—were linked to increased depressive symptoms during pregnancy. This reinforces the claim that intimate partner violence is a key factor in maternal mental health outcomes.

These results align with previous research that reported a strong connection between IPV and emotional turmoil during pregnancy (Campbell et al., 2019; Taft et al., 2020; Bohn & Meador, 2021). Bohn and Meador (2021) indicated a strong relationship between IPV during pregnancy and depressive symptoms, while Campbell et al. (2019) discovered that women who experienced abuse reported increased levels of both depression and anxiety. The findings from this research reinforce these conclusions and highlight the extensive and cumulative impact of domestic violence on the mental health of pregnant women.

This link is probably influenced by the ongoing emotional impact of continuous abuse, which disrupts emotional control and encourages negative thought patterns. Due to the emotional sensitivity during pregnancy, such sources of stress can be particularly harmful. According to Taft et al. (2020), intimate partner violence exacerbates emotions of fear, hopelessness, and diminished self-worth, which are fundamental signs of clinical depression. Moreover, the physiological stress resulting from abuse has been associated with negative pregnancy results, such as preterm delivery and issues with fetal development.

The hopelessness model continues to be a persuasive theoretical framework for comprehending this connection. Ongoing exposure to violence may lead women to believe their situations are irredeemable, strengthening fatalistic views and emotional detachment. This internalization of hopelessness ultimately heightens their vulnerability to depression while pregnant.

Finally, the fourth hypothesis, which predicted a notable relationship between maternal age and antepartum depression, was not validated. Despite a weak negative correlation being noted, it was statistically inconsequential. This indicates that in this group, age does not significantly affect the likelihood of experiencing prenatal depression. This outcome differs from certain earlier studies, which indicate that age may influence susceptibility to mood disorders. Kuehner (2020) suggested that younger women could encounter heightened emotional risks stemming from financial difficulties, inadequate social support, or unstable interpersonal relationships. Conversely, older pregnant women may face stressors linked to health issues or heightened caregiving duties. Nonetheless, these patterns were absent in this research.

One potential reason may be the consistency of healthcare accessibility or emotional support among different age demographics within the sample. In environments where prenatal care and community support are reliably accessible, age may have a diminished effect on mental health results. Hohmann et al. (2021) argued that availability of social and clinical assistance can alleviate psychological distress more efficiently than differences related to age, which could clarify the present results.

Additionally, antepartum depression probably arises from a complex interaction of partner relationships, financial stress, past trauma, and social factors, which may eclipse the impact of age. These results emphasize the necessity for upcoming research to account for a wider variety of biopsychosocial factors when examining depression in pregnancy.

 

Conclusion

This study investigated the link between domestic violence, the age of mothers, and antepartum depression in women from Anambra State. The results revealed a substantial positive connection between domestic violence and depressive symptoms in pregnancy, highlighting the detrimental psychological impacts of abuse and relational turmoil during this vital time. In contrast, age—a crucial sociodemographic factor—was not determined to meaningfully predict antepartum depression in the sample. These findings underscore the intricate interaction of psychological, relational, and demographic factors affecting maternal mental health and emphasize the need for implementing thorough, multi-faceted strategies in antenatal care. Actively tackling concerns like intimate partner violence, sexual health, and possible social vulnerabilities is crucial for the early identification and prevention of depression in pregnancy

 

 

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are proffered.

1. Healthcare professionals ought to regularly evaluate expectant mothers for signs of depression during prenatal appointments, especially focusing on sexual dissatisfaction and domestic abuse.
2. Government and NGOs must guarantee that legal protections for women against domestic violence are implemented. Shelters, helplines, and legal assistance must be reachable and available to women in danger.

1. Public health campaigns should raise awareness on the impact of domestic violence on maternal mental health, encouraging supportive environments for pregnant women.

 

 

 

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